la karda: Difference between revisions
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This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language. | This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language. | ||
Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as little | Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as little as | ||
possible. | |||
That is to say: | That is to say: | ||
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''Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely!'' | ''Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely!'' | ||
However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the most | However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the most immediate and | ||
immediate and expedient manner possible, a *conceptualization* of the language. | expedient manner possible, a *conceptualization* of the language. Lojban is | ||
Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical" and "unambiguous" to | characterized in many ways from being "logical" and "unambiguous" to "culturally | ||
"culturally neutral". The characterization that this text aims to reveal is that | neutral". The characterization that this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both | ||
Lojban is both rational (it makes sense) and regular (it always works the same). | rational (it makes sense) and regular (it always works the same). | ||
From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes Lojban easier | From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes Lojban easier to | ||
learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at first. | |||
'''Tip:''' | '''Tip:''' | ||
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In the end, if you're confused use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll | In the end, if you're confused use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll | ||
be fine! | be fine! | ||
== CORE GRAMMAR == | == CORE GRAMMAR == | ||
=== Parts of Language === | === Parts of Language === | ||
In Language there are three major parts: | In Language there are three major parts: | ||
nouns: the things we talk about | nouns: the things we talk about | ||
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sentences: says something using nouns and verbs | sentences: says something using nouns and verbs | ||
=== Types of Words === | === Types of Words === | ||
Lojban only has two kinds of words: | Lojban only has two kinds of words: | ||
particles: short words that perform grammar functions | particles: short words that perform grammar functions | ||
verbs: tell us what nouns do | verbs: tell us what nouns do | ||
=== What about Nouns? === | === What about Nouns? === | ||
What about nouns?! | What about nouns?! | ||
Hold that thought. | Hold that thought. | ||
=== Standard Form === | === Standard Form === | ||
Every sentence follows the form: | Every sentence follows the form: | ||
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"i" separates multiple sentences the first noun appears before the verb additional nouns follow the verb. | "i" separates multiple sentences the first noun appears before the verb additional nouns follow the verb. | ||
=== Verbs Say What Nouns Do === | === Verbs Say What Nouns Do === | ||
Verbs tell us what the nouns do: | Verbs tell us what the nouns do: | ||
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├──────┼──────┼────────┤ | ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ | ||
x1 verb x2 x3 | x1 verb x2 x3 | ||
=== Simple Pro-nouns === | === Simple Pro-nouns === | ||
Some particles act like pro-nouns: | Some particles act like pro-nouns: | ||
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ti - this, something nearby | ti - this, something nearby | ||
=== Verbs and Nouns === | === Verbs and Nouns === | ||
Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do: | |||
mi dunda ti do | mi dunda ti do | ||
[donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary] | [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary] | ||
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"I give this to you." | "I give this to you." | ||
=== Rearranging Nouns === | === Rearranging Nouns === | ||
Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do: | Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do: | ||
do* dunda ti mi* | do* dunda ti mi* | ||
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"You give this to me." | "You give this to me." | ||
=== Converting Verbs to Nouns === | === Converting Verbs to Nouns === | ||
The particles "lo" and "ku" convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role: | The particles "lo" and "ku" convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role: | ||
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"I gave this to a donor." | "I gave this to a donor." | ||
=== Complex Sentences === | === Complex Sentences === | ||
Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed: | Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed: | ||
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"A cat drinks some milk." | "A cat drinks some milk." | ||
=== The Drama of Language === | === The Drama of Language === | ||
Nouns. | The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed by the Verb | ||
and starring the Nouns. | |||
Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe! | Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe! | ||
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"A cat drinks some milk." | "A cat drinks some milk." | ||
=== Rearranging Verbs === | === Rearranging Verbs === | ||
The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs: | The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs: | ||
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se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5 | se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5 | ||
and so on.. | and so on.. | ||
=== SE In Action === | === SE In Action === | ||
These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main verb of sentences: | |||
These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main verb of | |||
sentences: | |||
fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3 | fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3 | ||
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└───────────┴───────────┘ | └───────────┴───────────┘ | ||
"The offering is good for the campers." | "The offering is good for the campers." | ||
=== FA Labels === | === FA Labels === | ||
The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering of sentences without | |||
modifying the verb: | The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering of sentences | ||
without modifying the verb: | |||
Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN' | Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN' | ||
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fu : x5 it fills. | fu : x5 it fills. | ||
This allows | This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb: | ||
dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you" | dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you" | ||
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──┬── ──┬── ─┐ | ──┬── ──┬── ─┐ | ||
x2 x1 x3 | x2 x1 x3 | ||
=== Cmavo and Brivla === | === Cmavo and Brivla === | ||
Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary: | Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary: | ||
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- a word that produces a grammatical verb | - a word that produces a grammatical verb | ||
- has a definition with 1 or more noun roles | - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles | ||
=== Selbri Sumti and Bridi === | === Selbri Sumti and Bridi === | ||
It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in lojban sentences: | It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in lojban sentences: | ||
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{lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku} | {lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku} | ||
=== Tanru === | === Tanru === | ||
By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri | |||
By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a "tanru" or compound-selbri verb | |||
can be created: | |||
mi <<djica> <citka>> lo <plise> ku | mi <<djica> <citka>> lo <plise> ku | ||
"I want-eat an apple." | "I want-eat an apple." | ||
Two brivla "cidja" and "dunda" come together below to create a compound-selbri inside a | |||
sumti: | |||
Simple Selbri | Simple Selbri | ||
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"The food-donor loves people." | "The food-donor loves people." | ||
But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or "tanru"? | |||
Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However, basic structure of | |||
the definition is that of the *right most* selbri component: | |||
gleki : x1 is happy about x2 | gleki : x1 is happy about x2 | ||
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What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure! | What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure! | ||
== CONVERSATION == | == CONVERSATION == | ||
=== Proper Nouns === | === Proper Nouns === | ||
Proper nouns are created by using "la" instead of "lo": | Proper nouns are created by using "la" instead of "lo": | ||
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Names are sumti just like any other. | Names are sumti just like any other. | ||
=== Introductions === | === Introductions === | ||
Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo "mi'e": | Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo "mi'e": | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"I'm Rose." | "I'm Rose." | ||
=== Greetings === | === Greetings === | ||
Greeting another person is done with the cmavo "coi": | Greeting another person is done with the cmavo "coi": | ||
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Or just, "coi" | Or just, "coi" | ||
=== Farewells === | === Farewells === | ||
Farewells are offered with the cmavo "co'o": | Farewells are offered with the cmavo "co'o": | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"Goodbye, Rose." | "Goodbye, Rose." | ||
=== Requesting Attention === | === Requesting Attention === | ||
Requests for attention are made with the cmavo "doi": | Requests for attention are made with the cmavo "doi": | ||
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─── | ─── | ||
"Hey, Rose." | "Hey, Rose." | ||
=== Yes No Questions === | === Yes No Questions === | ||
"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the "xu" cmavo: | "Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the "xu" cmavo: | ||
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"Did you eat an apple?" | "Did you eat an apple?" | ||
Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a statement the overall structure | Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a statement the | ||
hasn't changed. | overall structure hasn't changed. | ||
The "xu" is placed after the sentence separator "i" so as to apply to the whole sentence equally. By | The "xu" is placed after the sentence separator "i" so as to apply to the whole | ||
placing "xu" after a specific word emphasis can be placed on it: | sentence equally. By placing "xu" after a specific word emphasis can be placed on it: | ||
i do citka lo xu plise ku | i do citka lo xu plise ku | ||
── | ── | ||
"Was it an apple you ate?"" | "Was it an apple you ate?"" | ||
=== Yes No Answers === | === Yes No Answers === | ||
"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies: | "Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies: | ||
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─── | ─── | ||
The denial is supplied by: na go'i | The denial is supplied by: na go'i | ||
=== Sumti Questions === | === Sumti Questions === | ||
Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the "ma" cmavo in place of the sumti in question. | Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the "ma" cmavo in place of the sumti in question. | ||
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── ── | ── ── | ||
"Who killed who?" | "Who killed who?" | ||
=== Selbri Questions === | === Selbri Questions === | ||
Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the "mo" cmavo in place of the selbri in question. | Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the "mo" cmavo in place of the selbri in question. | ||
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── | ── | ||
"What kind of angry are you at me?" | "What kind of angry are you at me?" | ||
=== Attitude Questions === | === Attitude Questions === | ||
A special kind of question using the cmavo "pei" asks the listener to share their feelings or | |||
disposition about some topic: | A special kind of question using the cmavo "pei" asks the listener to share their | ||
feelings or disposition about some topic: | |||
i pei mi cliva | i pei mi cliva | ||
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─── | ─── | ||
"How do you feel that its chicken that I cook. | "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook. | ||
=== Attitude Cmavo === | === Attitude Cmavo === | ||
In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer to "pei" | |||
can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals". | In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer to "pei" can be | ||
given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals". | |||
ui - "I'm happy" | ui - "I'm happy" | ||
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i'e - "I approve" | i'e - "I approve" | ||
There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another some | There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another some aspect of | ||
aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the attitudinal is | the speaker's disposition about the speech the attitudinal is appears in. | ||
appears in. | |||
i ui do prami mi | i ui do prami mi | ||
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"I'm hopeful you succeed." | "I'm hopeful you succeed." | ||
Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of speech | Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of speech they attach | ||
they attach to: | to: | ||
do pinxe lo birje ku e'u | do pinxe lo birje ku e'u | ||
─── | ─── | ||
"I suggest beer to be what you drink." | "I suggest beer to be what you drink." | ||
=== Attitude Ranges === | === Attitude Ranges === | ||
Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, "nai" and other cmavo can affect the | Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can be altered from | ||
sense of the UI cmavo: | the default. | ||
Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, "nai" and other cmavo can | |||
affect the sense of the UI cmavo: | |||
ui cai - "I'm happy as possible" | ui cai - "I'm happy as possible" | ||
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and so on... | and so on... | ||
=== Evidential Cmavo === | === Evidential Cmavo === | ||
A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an epistemological claim. In other | |||
words, how the speaker came to know or state whatever it is they are saying: | A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an epistemological | ||
claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or state whatever it is they are | |||
saying: | |||
i ti'e do nelci mi | i ti'e do nelci mi | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"I expect Rose is at the house." | "I expect Rose is at the house." | ||
=== Discursive Cmavo === | === Discursive Cmavo === | ||
Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express the point | |||
Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express the point or | |||
purpose of a part of or a whole statement. | |||
i do citka lo titla ku po'o | i do citka lo titla ku po'o | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"However, armys are destructive." | "However, armys are destructive." | ||
=== Humor === | === Humor === | ||
Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation: | Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation: | ||
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─────── | ─────── | ||
"Yea.. are you done yet?" | "Yea.. are you done yet?" | ||
=== Changing the Subject === | === Changing the Subject === | ||
If things get tense you can always change the subject with "ta'o": | If things get tense you can always change the subject with "ta'o": | ||
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──────── | ──────── | ||
"Returning, what were we discussing?" | "Returning, what were we discussing?" | ||
=== Requests and Commands === | === Requests and Commands === | ||
Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your | |||
interlocutor to leave: | Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your interlocutor to | ||
leave: | |||
i e'o do cliva | i e'o do cliva | ||
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Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do". | Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do". | ||
== SUMTI MANIPULATION == | == SUMTI MANIPULATION == | ||
=== Saying "and" and "or" === | === Saying "and" and "or" === | ||
To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective cmavo | |||
"je" can be used: | To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective cmavo "je" can | ||
be used: | |||
Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI' | Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI' | ||
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── | ── | ||
"Pick the knife or the spear" | "Pick the knife or the spear" | ||
=== Grouping === | === Grouping === | ||
To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together, "jo'u" | |||
can be used: | To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together, "jo'u" can be | ||
used: | |||
Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI' | Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI' | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"I was killed by fire and ice." | "I was killed by fire and ice." | ||
=== Ownership === | === Ownership === | ||
To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo "po" is used: | To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo "po" is used: | ||
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── | ── | ||
"Go get your keys." | "Go get your keys." | ||
=== Association === | === Association === | ||
For a weaker association than ownership you can use "pe": | For a weaker association than ownership you can use "pe": | ||
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── | ── | ||
"Sit in my chair." | "Sit in my chair." | ||
=== Pluralities === | === Pluralities === | ||
To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can | |||
be placed before the sumti: | To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before the sumti: | ||
Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI' | Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI' | ||
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───── | ───── | ||
"I am troubled by 99 problems." | "I am troubled by 99 problems." | ||
=== Subjective Numbers === | === Subjective Numbers === | ||
Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy: | Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy: | ||
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mo'a lo plise ku - "not enough apples" | mo'a lo plise ku - "not enough apples" | ||
da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples" | da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples" | ||
== SELBRI MANIPULATION == | == SELBRI MANIPULATION == | ||
=== Negation and Affirmation === | === Negation and Affirmation === | ||
Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example negation is | |||
Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example negation is done | |||
with "na": | |||
Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI' | Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI' | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"I am definitely hungry" | "I am definitely hungry" | ||
=== Scaling Relevance === | === Scaling Relevance === | ||
Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri is | |||
applied: | Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri is applied: | ||
i mi <no'e <xagji>> | i mi <no'e <xagji>> | ||
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──── | ──── | ||
"It is not even a question of my hunger." | "It is not even a question of my hunger." | ||
=== Saying "and" and "or" === | === Saying "and" and "or" === | ||
Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective words: | Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective words: | ||
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── | ── | ||
"We should eat or leave." | "We should eat or leave." | ||
=== Tense === | === Tense === | ||
While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified to have | |||
While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified to have such | |||
tense: | |||
mi <pu <visku>> do | mi <pu <visku>> do | ||
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── | ── | ||
"I will see you." | "I will see you." | ||
=== Temporal Distance === | === Temporal Distance === | ||
In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided: | In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided: | ||
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── | ── | ||
"It has been a long while since I've seen you." | "It has been a long while since I've seen you." | ||
=== Proximity === | === Proximity === | ||
Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity: | Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity: | ||
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── | ── | ||
"I saw you elsewhere." | "I saw you elsewhere." | ||
=== Preloading === | === Preloading === | ||
Using the "be" cmavo, selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti removing a sumti | |||
Using the "be" cmavo, selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti removing a sumti place | |||
from the definition: | |||
Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI' | Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI' | ||
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dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2 | dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2 | ||
By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place of a selbri, but the FA | By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place of a selbri, but the FA family can be | ||
family can be used to specify which place should be filled: | used to specify which place should be filled: | ||
vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state | vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state | ||
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vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state | vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state | ||
=== Preloaded Sumti === | === Preloaded Sumti === | ||
Its important to note that with "be" a new selbri is formed even though it incorporates a sumti into | |||
it: | Its important to note that with "be" a new selbri is formed even though it incorporates | ||
a sumti into it: | |||
┌──────new selbri──────────┐ | ┌──────new selbri──────────┐ | ||
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└─────────────────┴─────────────────┘ | └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘ | ||
Since [lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be" seems unneeded | Since [lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be" | ||
here. | seems unneeded here. | ||
However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti! | However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti! | ||
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This is far more explicit than using "pe" or "po". | This is far more explicit than using "pe" or "po". | ||
== SUBORDINATION == | == SUBORDINATION == | ||
=== Facts === | === Facts === | ||
Similar to the transformation of Selbri into Sumti the same can be done for whole Bridi into | |||
Selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei": | Similar to the transformation of Selbri into Sumti the same can be done for whole Bridi | ||
into Selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei": | |||
Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI | Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI | ||
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inner bridi | inner bridi | ||
With the addition of "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into sumti allowing one to talk | With the addition of "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into sumti allowing one | ||
about the fact inside: | to talk about the fact inside: | ||
[lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me" | [lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me" | ||
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"I know that you love me." | "I know that you love me." | ||
=== Events === | === Events === | ||
Where "du'u" creates facts that get at the truth of a matter, "nu" can allow | |||
emphasizing times and locations in which the bridi takes place: | |||
Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI | |||
The definition of such a selbri is something like: | |||
x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi | |||
┌──fact selbri───┐ | |||
nu do speni mi kei = x1 is the event of: you are married to me | |||
└────┬────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
Just like with "du'u" these "nu" selbri can be turned into sumti with "lo" and "ku": | |||
[lo <nu {do speni mi} kei> ku] = "the event of our marriage" | |||
And can be incorporated into larger sentences: | |||
┌──fact selbri───┐ | |||
mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku] | |||
└────┬────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
"I desire our marriage." | |||
=== Properties === | === Properties === | ||
A third word, "ka" also can create a selbri from a bridi much like "du'u" and "nu": | |||
Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI | |||
Similar to a "mad-lib" game the bridi that ka consumes is missing a sumti! Or rather, | |||
one of the sumti is specified as "ce'u" which is much like a stand-in or variable: | |||
┌───────property selbri────────┐ | |||
mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] | |||
└──────────┬───────────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
The "ce'u" in "ce'u citka lo titnanba ku" has no meaning of its own. It is the selbri | |||
that receives the property which specifies the meaning of the ce'u. In this case, it is | |||
"cnici" taking the property as its x2. | |||
The definition of cnici is: | |||
x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property/quantity x2 (ka/ni). | |||
And so it is the x1, or mi, who is orderly in the eating of cookies. | |||
mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] | |||
└───────────────┘ | |||
"I am orderly in the eating of cookies." | |||
The reason for the variable word ce'u is that it allows specifying it in any place in | |||
the inner bridi: | |||
do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku] | |||
└───────────────────────────────┘ | |||
"You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you." | |||
Some selbri words make comparative statements such as zmadu which says that its x1 is | |||
more than its x2 in the way that they x3: | |||
zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3 | |||
do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] | |||
└────────────┬────────────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku | |||
"You are more than me in the eating of cookies." | |||
"You eat more cookies than me." | |||
=== Relative Phrases === | === Relative Phrases === | ||
Another way in which whole bridi can be embedded inside of another is by attaching it | |||
to a sumti. Instead of capturing a bridi in order to talk about it, "noi" can use a | |||
bridi to add additional information about a sumti: | |||
Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI' | |||
Similarly to the properties created with ka, noi-bridi have a stand-in word "ke'a": | |||
ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o | |||
└────────┬────────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
Meet Rose, who I love. | |||
In this case, since the noi-bridi is attached to la rozgu ku. It is her to whom ke'a | |||
refers to, in the inner bridi. | |||
If the information is not merely incidental but genuinely nessecary to discern which | |||
thing is being talking about "poi" can be used instead of noi: | |||
ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o | |||
└────────┬────────┘ | |||
inner bridi | |||
Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.) | |||
== Understanding Time == | |||
The basic tenses "pu", "ca" and "ba" were previously mentioned as ways to change how | |||
the bridi relates to time. It is easy to become confused with tenses but there are some | |||
helpful ways to think about it. | |||
=== Basic Tenses === | |||
The tense for stating something is currently happening is "ca": | |||
mi ca citka | |||
── | |||
"I am currently eating." | |||
Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is: | |||
"The present coincides with my eating." | |||
citka | |||
⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝ | |||
Past Now Future | |||
How about the other tenses? | |||
mi pu pensi | |||
── | |||
"I was thinking." | |||
"The past coincides with my thinking." | |||
pensi | |||
⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ | |||
Past Now Future | |||
do ba jimpe | |||
── | |||
"You will understand." | |||
"The future coincides with your understanding." | |||
jimpe | |||
⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝ | |||
Past Now Future | |||
=== Event Contours === | |||
There is a sense in which all events have temporal extent or lifetime. It is often | |||
useful to describe the various events "within" an event and the ZAhO family of tenses | |||
can be used for accessing them: | |||
╎ pu'o: before | |||
pu'o ═══════════╣ ╠════════════ ba'o ╎ co'a: the outset | |||
co'a de'a di'a co'u ╎ de'a: break | |||
╎ di'a: resumption | |||
└───────────┬─────────────┘ ╎ co'u: finish | |||
co'i ╎ ba'o: after | |||
╎ co'i: for the duration | |||
Just like other tenses they modify a selbri to create a new one: | |||
Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI | |||
mi <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku | |||
──── | |||
"I'm starting to eat an apple." | |||
mi panca lo nu <co'u <carvi>> kei ku | |||
──── | |||
"I wish for it to finish raining." | |||
ko <de'a <tadni>> | |||
──── | |||
"Take a break from studying." | |||
mi <pu'o <sipna>> | |||
──── | |||
"Its before my bedtime." | |||
mi <ba'o <prami>> do | |||
──── | |||
"My loving you has passed."" | |||
=== Tensed Contours === | |||
Since none of the examples above specify a tense, it is by default "ca" or present tense: | |||
mi <ca <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku | |||
── ──── | |||
"I'm starting to eat an apple" | |||
"The present coincides with the start of my apple eating." | |||
citka | |||
╠═══╣ | |||
┊ | |||
⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝ | |||
Past Now Future | |||
But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses? | |||
mi <pu <pu'o <sipna>>> | |||
── ──── | |||
"It was before my bedtime." | |||
"The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime." | |||
sipna | |||
┊ ╠═══╣ | |||
┊ | |||
⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ | |||
Past Now Future | |||
mi <ba <ba'o <prami>>> do | |||
── ──── | |||
"My loving you will have passed." | |||
"The future coincides with the aftermath of our love." | |||
sipna | |||
╠═══╣ ┊ | |||
┊ | |||
⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ | |||
Past Now Future |
Revision as of 08:21, 23 May 2016
PREFACE
This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language.
Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as little as possible.
That is to say:
- For each concept the most crucial aspects are presented
- However, some details may be glossed over or simplified
- Some details are only mentioned or explained by their mere appearance in example sentences. Look carefully!
Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely!
However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the most immediate and expedient manner possible, a *conceptualization* of the language. Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical" and "unambiguous" to "culturally neutral". The characterization that this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both rational (it makes sense) and regular (it always works the same).
From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes Lojban easier to learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at first.
Tip:
If you take the following passages at reading speed you will likely find yourself lost in the forest very quickly. Each tiny section is a conceptual neutronium diamond. The slower you go, the better time you'll have at absorbing what it is trying to tell you.
In the end, if you're confused use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll be fine!
CORE GRAMMAR
Parts of Language
In Language there are three major parts:
nouns: the things we talk about
verbs: tell us what the nouns do
sentences: says something using nouns and verbs
Types of Words
Lojban only has two kinds of words:
particles: short words that perform grammar functions
verbs: tell us what nouns do
What about Nouns?
What about nouns?!
Hold that thought.
Standard Form
Every sentence follows the form:
i x1 VERB x2 x3 xN
"i" separates multiple sentences the first noun appears before the verb additional nouns follow the verb.
Verbs Say What Nouns Do
Verbs tell us what the nouns do:
dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3
[donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor] ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ x1 verb x2 x3
Simple Pro-nouns
Some particles act like pro-nouns:
mi - me, the speaker
do - you, the listener
ti - this, something nearby
Verbs and Nouns
Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do:
mi dunda ti do [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary] ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ x1 verb x2 x3
"I give this to you."
Rearranging Nouns
Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do:
do* dunda ti mi* [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary] ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ x1 verb x2 x3
"You give this to me."
Converting Verbs to Nouns
The particles "lo" and "ku" convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role:
Pattern: lo VERB ku => NOUN from x1
dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3 ▼ verb ┌─┴─┐ lo dunda ku <== [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor] ─────┬───── ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ noun x1 verb x2 x3
"lo dunda ku" creates a noun-description which refers to "a donor"
mi dunda ti lo dunda ku [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary] ├──────┼──────┼────────┤ x1 verb x2 x3
"I gave this to a donor."
Complex Sentences
Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed:
mlatu: x1 is a cat
pinxe: x1 drinks beverage x2
ladru: x1 is milk
lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku [drinker] │ [beverage] ├──────────┼─────────┤ x1 verb x2
"A cat drinks some milk."
The Drama of Language
The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed by the Verb and starring the Nouns.
Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe!
The Verb Director tells us what Roles are available and What Happens:
Pinxe says, "x1 drinks beverage x2"
Story Outline: [drinker] pinxe [beverage]
SCRIPT: 1. A Drinker drinks! 2. A Beverage is imbibed!
CAST: The lead Drinker : lo mlatu ku (mlatu's x1 - "a cat") The supporting Beverage: lo ladru ku (ladru's x1 - "some milk")
STAGE: lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku <= actors in the play [drinker] │ [beverage] <= roles in the play ├──────────┼─────────┤ role1 director role2
"A cat drinks some milk."
Rearranging Verbs
The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs:
Pattern: SE VERB => VERB'
The roles of the x1 and xN nouns, what they do, is swapped in the new modified verb:
klama: x1 travels to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5
| X1 | VERB | X2 | X3 | X4 | X5 | | traveler | klama | destination | origin | route | vehicle | x1◄ ►x2 | destination | se klama | traveler | origin | route | vehicle | x1◄ ►x3 | origin | te klama | destination | traveler | route | vehicle | x1◄ ►x4 | route | ve klama | destination | origin | traveler | vehicle | x1◄ ►x5 | vehicle | xe klama | destination | origin | route | traveler |
se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5 and so on..
SE In Action
These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main verb of sentences:
fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3
vecnu: x1 sells x2 to buyer x3 for price x4
dakfu: x1 is a knife
lo se fraxu ku te vecnu lo dakfu ku [buyer] | [goods] └────────────┴───────────┘ "The forgiven buys a knife."
friti: x1 offers x2 to x3
xamgu: x1 is beneficial to x2
ginka: x1 is an encampment of x2
lo se friti ku xamgu lo se ginka ku [benefit] | [beneficiary] └───────────┴───────────┘ "The offering is good for the campers."
FA Labels
The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering of sentences without modifying the verb:
Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN'
fa : x1 Each particle from the FA family fe : x2 simply specifies what the following fi : x3 noun is doing in the sentence. In fo : x4 other words which role from the verb fu : x5 it fills.
This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb:
dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you"
Or skip some places entirely:
mi dunda fi do - "I donate to you"
Counting resumes from any FA particle:
fe ti dunda fa mi do - "I donate this to you" ──┬── ──┬── ─┐ x2 x1 x3
Cmavo and Brivla
Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary:
"cmavo" - mi, ti, do, lo, ku - small word that performs a grammatical function - categorized into families
"brivla" : dunda, klama, mlatu, ladru - a word that produces a grammatical verb - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles
Selbri Sumti and Bridi
It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in lojban sentences:
"selbri" - the verb phrases central to sentences and nouns
"sumti" - the noun phrases that take on semantic roles
"bridi" - the combination of a selbri and its sumti
LEGEND: <> - selbri verb [] - sumti noun {} - bridi statement
Notice how selbri verb phrases appear throughout:
lo <se <jdice>> ku <nandu> lo <sonci> ku
Sumti nouns are placed around the root selbri:
[lo se jdice ku] nandu [lo sonci ku]
And the whole structure, a selbri with its sumti, is a bridi:
{lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku}
Tanru
By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a "tanru" or compound-selbri verb can be created:
mi <<djica> <citka>> lo <plise> ku "I want-eat an apple."
Two brivla "cidja" and "dunda" come together below to create a compound-selbri inside a sumti:
Simple Selbri ┌───┴───┐ lo <<cidja> <dunda>> ku <prami> lo <prenu> ku └───────┬───────┘ Selbri Tanru
"The food-donor loves people."
But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or "tanru"?
Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However, basic structure of the definition is that of the *right most* selbri component:
gleki : x1 is happy about x2
cadzu : x1 walks on surface x2
gleki cadzu : x1 happy-walks on surface x2
What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure!
CONVERSATION
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are created by using "la" instead of "lo":
mi prami lo rozgu ku ── ── "I love roses."
mi prami la rozgu ku ── ── "I love Rose."
Names are sumti just like any other.
Introductions
Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo "mi'e":
Pattern: mi'e NAME
mi'e la rozgu ku ──── "I'm Rose."
Greetings
Greeting another person is done with the cmavo "coi":
Pattern: coi SUMTI
coi la rozgu ku ─── "Hello, Rose."
coi lo tadni ku ─── "Hello, student"
coi do ─── "Hello, you."
Or just, "coi"
Farewells
Farewells are offered with the cmavo "co'o":
Pattern: co'o SUMTI
co'o la rozgu ku ──── "Goodbye, Rose."
Requesting Attention
Requests for attention are made with the cmavo "doi":
Pattern: doi SUMTI
doi la rozgu ku ─── "Hey, Rose."
Yes No Questions
"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the "xu" cmavo:
i xu do citka lo plise ku ── "Did you eat an apple?"
Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a statement the overall structure hasn't changed.
The "xu" is placed after the sentence separator "i" so as to apply to the whole sentence equally. By placing "xu" after a specific word emphasis can be placed on it:
i do citka lo xu plise ku ── "Was it an apple you ate?""
Yes No Answers
"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies:
In the affirmative, "go'i" is used: Q: xu do citka lo plise ku A: go'i ─── The denial is supplied by: na go'i
Sumti Questions
Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the "ma" cmavo in place of the sumti in question.
do citka ma ── "What did you eat?"
ma catra ma ── ── "Who killed who?"
Selbri Questions
Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the "mo" cmavo in place of the selbri in question.
mo fa mi do ti ── "What are we doing with this?"
do mo ── "You are/doing what?"
do mo fengu mi ── "What kind of angry are you at me?"
Attitude Questions
A special kind of question using the cmavo "pei" asks the listener to share their feelings or disposition about some topic:
i pei mi cliva ─── "How do you feel about me leaving?"
"pei" is another word which can direct its emphasis by way of right-attachment:
i mi jukpa lo jipci ku pei ─── "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook.
Attitude Cmavo
In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer to "pei" can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals".
ui - "I'm happy"
a'o - "I hope"
i'e - "I approve"
There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another some aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the attitudinal is appears in.
i ui do prami mi ── "You love me, and I'm happy about it."
i a'o do snada ─── "I'm hopeful you succeed."
Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of speech they attach to:
do pinxe lo birje ku e'u ─── "I suggest beer to be what you drink."
Attitude Ranges
Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can be altered from the default.
Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, "nai" and other cmavo can affect the sense of the UI cmavo:
ui cai - "I'm happy as possible" ui sai - "I'm very happy" ui - "I'm happy" ui ru'e - "I'm kinda/sorta happy" ui cu'i - "I'm neutral in my happiness" ui nai - "I'm unhappy" ui nai sai - "I'm very unhappy"
and so on...
Evidential Cmavo
A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an epistemological claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or state whatever it is they are saying:
i ti'e do nelci mi ──── "I hear rumored that you like me."
i pe'i lo plise ku xamgu ──── "It is my opinion that apples are beneficial."
i za'a do mutce xagji ──── "I observe that you are very hungry."
i ba'a la rozgu ku zvati lo zdani ku ──── "I expect Rose is at the house."
Discursive Cmavo
Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express the point or purpose of a part of or a whole statement.
i do citka lo titla ku po'o ──── "You only eat sweets."
i ji'a mi nitcu lo jdini ku ──── "Also, I need money."
i si'a mi terpa lo jukni ku ──── "Similarly, I'm afraid of spiders."
i ku'i lo jenmi ku daspo ──── "However, armys are destructive."
Humor
Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation:
Sarcasm:
i xo'o lo se platu ku banli ──── "Oh jeeze, great plan."
i xo'o nai lo skaci ku melbi ──────── "Seriously, that skirt is beautiful."
Levity:
i zo'o se ckaji do ──── "Ho! Typical you."
i zo'o nai mi nelci lo cutci ──── "I do like these shoes..."
Amusement:
i u'i xu do mulno ─── "Haha, are you done yet?"
i u'i nai xu do mulno ─────── "Yea.. are you done yet?"
Changing the Subject
If things get tense you can always change the subject with "ta'o":
i ta'o do klama ma ──── "By the way, where are you going?"
You can also return to a previous topic by adding "nai":
i ta'o nai mi'o casnu ma ──────── "Returning, what were we discussing?"
Requests and Commands
Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your interlocutor to leave:
i e'o do cliva ─── "Please, you leave."
Or if they have been particularly offensive you might demand it!
i ko cliva ── "I implore you to leave."
Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do".
SUMTI MANIPULATION
Saying "and" and "or"
To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective cmavo "je" can be used:
Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI'
i mi nelci [[lo plise ku] je [lo perli ku]] ── "I like apples and pears."
Similarly, "ja" can be used for "or":
i ko cuxna [[lo dakfu ku] ja [lo mruli ku]] ── "Pick the knife or the spear"
Grouping
To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together, "jo'u" can be used:
Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI'
i [[mi] jo'u [do]] bevri lo pipno ──── "You and I carry the piano"
i mi se catra [[lo fagri ku] jo'u [lo bisli ku]] ──── "I was killed by fire and ice."
Ownership
To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo "po" is used:
Pattern: SUMTI po SUMTI => SUMTI'
i [[lo karce ku] po [mi]] spofu ── "My car is broken."
i ko cpacu [[lo ckiku ku] po [do]] ── "Go get your keys."
Association
For a weaker association than ownership you can use "pe":
Pattern: SUMTI pe SUMTI => SUMTI'
i mi vasxu [[lo vacri ku] pe [do]] ── "I'm breathing your air."
i ko zutse [[lo stizu ku] pe [mi]] ── "Sit in my chair."
Pluralities
To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before the sumti:
Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI'
Numbers: no pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i mi viska [mu [lo bakni ku]] ── "I see 5 cows."
i mi se raktu [so so [lo nabmi ku]] ───── "I am troubled by 99 problems."
Subjective Numbers
Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy:
i xu do citka [du'e [lo plise ku]] ──── "Did you eat too many apples?"
so'u lo plise ku - "a few apples" so'o lo plise ku - "several apples" so'i lo plise ku - "many apples" so'e lo plise ku - "most of the apples" ro lo plise ku - "all the apples" rau lo plise ku - "enough apples" mo'a lo plise ku - "not enough apples" da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples"
SELBRI MANIPULATION
Negation and Affirmation
Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example negation is done with "na":
Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI'
i mi <na <xagji>> ── "I'm not hungry"
On the flip-side you can say something is certain:
i mi <ja'a <xagji>> ──── "I am definitely hungry"
Scaling Relevance
Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri is applied:
i mi <no'e <xagji>> ──── "I'm not really that hungry."
i mi <to'e <xagji>> ──── "I'm full!"
i mi <na'i <xagji>> ──── "It is not even a question of my hunger."
Saying "and" and "or"
Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective words:
i mi <<tatpi> je <xagji>> ── "I'm tired and hungry"
i mi'o e'u <<citka> ja <cliva>>. ── "We should eat or leave."
Tense
While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified to have such tense:
mi <pu <visku>> do ── "I saw you."
mi <ca <viska>> do ── "I see you."
mi <ba <viska>> do ── "I will see you."
Temporal Distance
In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided:
mi <pu zi <viska>> do ── "I just saw you!"
mi <pu za <viska>> do ── "I saw you a while ago."
mi <pu zu <viska>> do ── "It has been a long while since I've seen you."
Proximity
Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity:
mi <vi <viska>> do ── "I saw you right here!"
mi <va <viska>> do ── "I saw you nearby."
mi <vu <viska>> do ── "I saw you elsewhere."
Preloading
Using the "be" cmavo, selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti removing a sumti place from the definition:
Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'
dunda : x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3 dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2
By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place of a selbri, but the FA family can be used to specify which place should be filled:
vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state
Additionally, multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by "bei"
vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state
Preloaded Sumti
Its important to note that with "be" a new selbri is formed even though it incorporates a sumti into it:
┌──────new selbri──────────┐ <<vecnu> be [lo xarci ku]> = x1 sells weapons to x2 │ │ base selbri injected sumti
This is a little strange when used as the main verb of a sentence:
(who) (sells guns) (the state) ma <vecnu be lo xarci ku> lo jecta ku [seller] │ [buyer] └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘
Since [lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be" seems unneeded here.
However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti!
┌───preloaded selbri─────┐ mi tavla [lo <<vecnu> be [lo xarci ku]> ku] "I talk to the seller of weapons.
ko na lebna [lo <<sidbo> be fi [mi]> ku] "Don't you take ideas of mine."
This is far more explicit than using "pe" or "po".
SUBORDINATION
Facts
Similar to the transformation of Selbri into Sumti the same can be done for whole Bridi into Selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei":
Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI
The definition of such a selbri is something like:
x1 is the fact represented by the inner Bridi
┌───fact selbri────┐ du'u do prami mi kei = x1 is the fact that: you love me └────┬────┘ inner bridi
With the addition of "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into sumti allowing one to talk about the fact inside:
[lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me"
These nested fact sumti can be used as any other:
┌───fact selbri────┐ mi djuno [lo du'u do prami mi kei ku] └────┬────┘ inner bridi
"I know that you love me."
Events
Where "du'u" creates facts that get at the truth of a matter, "nu" can allow emphasizing times and locations in which the bridi takes place:
Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI
The definition of such a selbri is something like:
x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi
┌──fact selbri───┐ nu do speni mi kei = x1 is the event of: you are married to me └────┬────┘ inner bridi
Just like with "du'u" these "nu" selbri can be turned into sumti with "lo" and "ku":
[lo <nu {do speni mi} kei> ku] = "the event of our marriage"
And can be incorporated into larger sentences:
┌──fact selbri───┐ mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku] └────┬────┘ inner bridi
"I desire our marriage."
Properties
A third word, "ka" also can create a selbri from a bridi much like "du'u" and "nu":
Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI
Similar to a "mad-lib" game the bridi that ka consumes is missing a sumti! Or rather, one of the sumti is specified as "ce'u" which is much like a stand-in or variable:
┌───────property selbri────────┐ mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] └──────────┬───────────┘ inner bridi
The "ce'u" in "ce'u citka lo titnanba ku" has no meaning of its own. It is the selbri that receives the property which specifies the meaning of the ce'u. In this case, it is "cnici" taking the property as its x2.
The definition of cnici is:
x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property/quantity x2 (ka/ni).
And so it is the x1, or mi, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.
mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] └───────────────┘ "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."
The reason for the variable word ce'u is that it allows specifying it in any place in the inner bridi:
do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku] └───────────────────────────────┘
"You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."
Some selbri words make comparative statements such as zmadu which says that its x1 is more than its x2 in the way that they x3:
zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3
do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku] └────────────┬────────────┘ inner bridi
do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku
"You are more than me in the eating of cookies." "You eat more cookies than me."
Relative Phrases
Another way in which whole bridi can be embedded inside of another is by attaching it to a sumti. Instead of capturing a bridi in order to talk about it, "noi" can use a bridi to add additional information about a sumti:
Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'
Similarly to the properties created with ka, noi-bridi have a stand-in word "ke'a":
ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o └────────┬────────┘ inner bridi Meet Rose, who I love.
In this case, since the noi-bridi is attached to la rozgu ku. It is her to whom ke'a refers to, in the inner bridi.
If the information is not merely incidental but genuinely nessecary to discern which thing is being talking about "poi" can be used instead of noi:
ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o └────────┬────────┘ inner bridi Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.)
Understanding Time
The basic tenses "pu", "ca" and "ba" were previously mentioned as ways to change how the bridi relates to time. It is easy to become confused with tenses but there are some helpful ways to think about it.
Basic Tenses
The tense for stating something is currently happening is "ca":
mi ca citka ── "I am currently eating."
Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is:
"The present coincides with my eating."
citka ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝ Past Now Future
How about the other tenses?
mi pu pensi ── "I was thinking." "The past coincides with my thinking."
pensi ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ Past Now Future
do ba jimpe ── "You will understand." "The future coincides with your understanding."
jimpe ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝ Past Now Future
Event Contours
There is a sense in which all events have temporal extent or lifetime. It is often useful to describe the various events "within" an event and the ZAhO family of tenses can be used for accessing them:
╎ pu'o: before pu'o ═══════════╣ ╠════════════ ba'o ╎ co'a: the outset co'a de'a di'a co'u ╎ de'a: break ╎ di'a: resumption └───────────┬─────────────┘ ╎ co'u: finish co'i ╎ ba'o: after ╎ co'i: for the duration
Just like other tenses they modify a selbri to create a new one:
Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI
mi <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku ──── "I'm starting to eat an apple."
mi panca lo nu <co'u <carvi>> kei ku ──── "I wish for it to finish raining."
ko <de'a <tadni>> ──── "Take a break from studying."
mi <pu'o <sipna>> ──── "Its before my bedtime."
mi <ba'o <prami>> do ──── "My loving you has passed.""
Tensed Contours
Since none of the examples above specify a tense, it is by default "ca" or present tense:
mi <ca <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku ── ──── "I'm starting to eat an apple" "The present coincides with the start of my apple eating."
citka ╠═══╣ ┊ ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝ Past Now Future
But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses?
mi <pu <pu'o <sipna>>> ── ──── "It was before my bedtime." "The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime."
sipna ┊ ╠═══╣ ┊ ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ Past Now Future
mi <ba <ba'o <prami>>> do ── ──── "My loving you will have passed." "The future coincides with the aftermath of our love."
sipna ╠═══╣ ┊ ┊ ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝ Past Now Future