la karda: Difference between revisions

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Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections:
Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections:


la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki and la tsani
la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki and la tsani




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=== Preloading ===
=== Preloading ===


Using the "be" cmavo, selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti removing a sumti place
Selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti, removing a sumti place from the definition,
from the definition:
with the "be" cmavo:


   Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'
   Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'
Line 879: Line 879:
   dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2
   dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2


By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place of a selbri, but the FA family can be
By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place, but the FA family can be used to
used to specify which place should be filled:
specify which place should be filled:


   vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state
   vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state


Additionally, multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by "bei"
Multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by "bei"


   vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state
   vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state
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=== Preloaded Sumti ===
=== Preloaded Sumti ===


It's important to note that with "be" a new selbri is formed even though it incorporates
Note that "be" forms a new selbri even though it incorporates a sumti:
a sumti into it:


   ┌──────new selbri──────────┐
   ┌──────new selbri──────────┐
Line 906: Line 905:
       └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘
       └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘


Since [lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be"
[lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be" appears
seems unneeded here.
unnessecary. However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti!
 
However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti!


               ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐
               ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐
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=== Facts ===
=== Facts ===


Similar to the transformation of Selbri into Sumti the same can be done for whole Bridi
Similar to the transformation of selbri into sumti the same can be done for whole bridi
into Selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei":
into selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei":


   Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI
   Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI
Line 932: Line 929:
The definition of such a selbri is something like:
The definition of such a selbri is something like:


   x1 is the fact represented by the inner Bridi
   x1 is the fact represented by the inner bridi


   ┌───fact selbri────┐
   ┌───fact selbri────┐
Line 939: Line 936:
       inner bridi
       inner bridi


With the addition of "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into sumti allowing one
Adding "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into a sumti allowing one to talk about
to talk about the fact inside:
the fact inside:


   [lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me"
   [lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me"
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=== Events ===
=== Events ===


Where "du'u" creates facts that get at the truth of a matter, "nu" can allow
Where "du'u" gets at the truth of a matter, "nu" can emphasize the time and location in
emphasizing times and locations in which the bridi takes place:
which a bridi takes place:


   Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI
   Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI
Line 986: Line 983:
=== Properties ===
=== Properties ===


A third word, "ka" also can create a selbri from a bridi much like "du'u" and "nu":
A third word, "ka" can also create a selbri from a bridi much like "du'u" and "nu":


   Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI
   Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI


Similar to a "mad-lib" game the bridi that ka consumes is missing a sumti! Or rather,
The bridi must contain at least one "ce'u" sumti:
one of the sumti is specified as "ce'u" which is much like a stand-in or variable:


               ┌───────property selbri────────┐
               ┌───────property selbri────────┐
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                       inner bridi
                       inner bridi


The "ce'u" in "ce'u citka lo titnanba ku" has no meaning of its own. It is the selbri
The ce'u has no meaning of its own. The selbri that receives the property specifies
that receives the property which specifies the meaning of the ce'u. In this case, it is
what it refers to. In this case, it is "cnici" taking the property as its x2.
"cnici" taking the property as its x2.


The definition of cnici is:
The definition of cnici is:


   x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property/quantity x2 (ka/ni).
   x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property x2


And so it is the x1, or mi, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.
And so it is the x1, or mi, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.
Line 1,014: Line 1,009:
   "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."
   "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."


The reason for the variable word ce'u is that it allows specifying it in any place in
The ce'u can appear anywhere in the inner bridi:
the inner bridi:


   do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]
   do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]
Line 1,023: Line 1,017:
   "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."
   "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."


Some selbri words make comparative statements such as zmadu which says that its x1 is
Some selbri words make comparative statements:
more than its x2 in the way that they x3:


   zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3
   zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3
Line 1,037: Line 1,030:
   "You eat more cookies than me."
   "You eat more cookies than me."


Numerous property relations exist within the Lojban lexicon.


=== Relative Phrases ===
=== Relative Phrases ===


Another way in which whole bridi can be embedded inside of another is by attaching it
Additional information about a sumti can be provided by attaching a bridi to it with "noi":
to a sumti. Instead of capturing a bridi in order to talk about it, "noi" can use a
bridi to add additional information about a sumti:


   Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'
   Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'
Line 1,054: Line 1,046:
   Meet Rose, who I love.
   Meet Rose, who I love.


In this case, since the noi-bridi is attached to la rozgu ku. It is her to whom ke'a
The noi-bridi is attached to "la rozgu ku" and so it is her to whom ke'a
refers to, in the inner bridi.
refers to.


If the information is not merely incidental but genuinely nessecary to discern which
If the information is not merely incidental but nessecary to discern which
thing is being talking about "poi" can be used instead of noi:
thing is being talking about "poi" can be used instead:


   ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o
   ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o
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== Understanding Time ==
== Understanding Time ==


The basic tenses "pu", "ca" and "ba" were previously mentioned as ways to change how
The basic tenses "pu", "ca" and "ba" were covered previously but it is easy to become
the bridi relates to time. It is easy to become confused with tenses but there are some
confused.
helpful ways to think about it.
 


=== Basic Tenses ===
=== Basic Tenses ===
Line 1,113: Line 1,103:
=== Event Contours ===
=== Event Contours ===


There is a sense in which all events have temporal extent or lifetime. It is often
All events have a "temporal extent" or lifetime. It is often useful to describe the
useful to describe the various events "within" an event and the ZAhO family of tenses
various events "within" an event. The ZAhO family of tenses can be used for accessing
can be used for accessing them:
them:


                                                       ╎ pu'o:  before
                                                       ╎ pu'o:  before
Line 1,125: Line 1,115:
                                                       ╎ co'i:  for the duration
                                                       ╎ co'i:  for the duration


Just like other tenses they modify a selbri to create a new one:
Like basic tenses, they modify a selbri to create a new one:


   Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI
   Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI
Line 1,152: Line 1,142:
=== Tensed Contours ===
=== Tensed Contours ===


Since none of the examples above specify a tense, it is by default "ca" or present tense:
If no basic tense is provided, "ca" or present-tense is assumed:


   mi <ca <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku
   mi <ca <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku
Line 1,188: Line 1,178:
     ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝
     ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝
     Past      Now      Future
     Past      Now      Future
* NOTES
** be'o termination
{be}'s terminator {be'o} is

Revision as of 21:09, 23 May 2016

PREFACE

This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language.

Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as little as possible.

That is to say:

  • For each concept the most crucial aspects are presented
  • However, some details may be glossed over or simplified
  • Some details are only mentioned or explained by their mere appearance in example sentences. Look carefully!

Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely!

However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the most immediate and expedient manner possible, a *conceptualization* of the language. Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical" and "unambiguous" to "culturally neutral". The characterization that this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both rational (it makes sense) and regular (it always works the same).

From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes Lojban easier to learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at first.

Tip:

   If you take the following passages at reading speed you will likely find
   yourself lost in the forest very quickly. Each tiny section is a conceptual
   neutronium diamond. The slower you go, the better time you'll have at absorbing
   what it is trying to tell you.
   In the end, if you're confused use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll
   be fine!


SPECIAL THANKS

A number of people have contributed to the creation of this document in various ways:

A general thanks goes to the entire IRC community, since it is the largest driver of Lojban's on-going promotion and evolution.

Thanks goes to la selpa'i ku who's article on ZAhO was the inspiration for the section on "Understanding Time" and has made a number of corrections to errors in this document as well as helping along my own study of Lojban. And of course their many contributions to the language itself.

Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections:

la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki and la tsani


CORE GRAMMAR

Parts of Language

In Language there are three major parts:

 nouns: the things we talk about
 verbs: tell us what the nouns do
 sentences: says something using nouns and verbs


Types of Words

Lojban only has two kinds of words:

 particles: short words that perform grammar functions
 verbs: tell us what nouns do


What about Nouns?

What about nouns?!

 Hold that thought.


Standard Form

Every sentence follows the form:

 i x1 VERB x2 x3 xN

"i" separates multiple sentences the first noun appears before the verb additional nouns follow the verb.


Verbs Say What Nouns Do

Verbs tell us what the nouns do:

 dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3
 [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]
    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤
   x1    verb     x2       x3


Simple Pro-nouns

Some particles act like pro-nouns:

 mi - me, the speaker
 do - you, the listener
 ti - this, something nearby


Verbs and Nouns

Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do:

   mi    dunda   ti        do
 [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]
    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤
   x1    verb     x2       x3
 "I give this to you."


Rearranging Nouns

Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do:

   do*   dunda   ti        mi*
 [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]
    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤
   x1    verb     x2       x3
 "You give this to me."


Converting Verbs to Nouns

The particles "lo" and "ku" convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role:

 Pattern: lo VERB ku => NOUN from x1
    dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3
      ▼
    verb
    ┌─┴─┐
 lo dunda ku <== [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]
 ─────┬─────       ├──────┼──────┼────────┤
     noun         x1    verb     x2       x3

"lo dunda ku" creates a noun-description which refers to "a donor"

   mi    dunda   ti    lo dunda ku
 [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]
    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤
   x1    verb     x2       x3
 "I gave this to a donor."


Complex Sentences

Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed:

 mlatu: x1 is a cat
 pinxe: x1 drinks beverage x2
 ladru: x1 is milk
 lo mlatu ku   pinxe   lo ladru ku
  [drinker]      │     [beverage]
      ├──────────┼─────────┤
     x1        verb        x2
     "A cat drinks some milk."


The Drama of Language

The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed by the Verb and starring the Nouns.

 Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe!

The Verb Director tells us what Roles are available and What Happens:

 Pinxe says, "x1 drinks beverage x2"
 Story Outline: [drinker] pinxe [beverage]
 SCRIPT:
   1. A Drinker drinks!
   2. A Beverage is imbibed!
 CAST:
   The lead Drinker       : lo mlatu ku (mlatu's x1 - "a cat")
   The supporting Beverage: lo ladru ku (ladru's x1 - "some milk")
 STAGE:
   lo mlatu ku   pinxe   lo ladru ku    <= actors in the play
    [drinker]      │     [beverage]     <= roles in the play
        ├──────────┼─────────┤
      role1    director    role2
       "A cat drinks some milk."


Rearranging Verbs

The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs:

 Pattern: SE VERB => VERB'

The roles of the x1 and xN nouns, what they do, is swapped in the new modified verb:

 klama: x1 travels to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5
            | X1          | VERB     | X2          | X3        | X4        | X5        |
            | traveler    | klama    | destination | origin    | route     | vehicle   |
   x1◄ ►x2  | destination | se klama | traveler    | origin    | route     | vehicle   |
   x1◄ ►x3  | origin      | te klama | destination | traveler  | route     | vehicle   |
   x1◄ ►x4  | route       | ve klama | destination | origin    | traveler  | vehicle   |
   x1◄ ►x5  | vehicle     | xe klama | destination | origin    | route     | traveler  |
 se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5
 and so on..


SE In Action

These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main verb of sentences:

 fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3
 vecnu: x1 sells x2 to buyer x3 for price x4
 dakfu: x1 is a knife
 lo se fraxu ku  te vecnu   lo dakfu ku
    [buyer]         |        [goods]
       └────────────┴───────────┘
      "The forgiven buys a knife."
 friti: x1 offers x2 to x3
 xamgu: x1 is beneficial to x2
 ginka: x1 is an encampment of x2
 lo se friti ku  xamgu   lo se ginka ku
   [benefit]       |      [beneficiary]
       └───────────┴───────────┘
  "The offering is good for the campers."


FA Labels

The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering of sentences without modifying the verb:

 Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN'
 fa : x1   Each particle from the FA family
 fe : x2   simply specifies what the following
 fi : x3   noun is doing in the sentence. In
 fo : x4   other words which role from the verb
 fu : x5   it fills.

This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb:

 dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you"

Or skip some places entirely:

 mi dunda fi do - "I donate to you"

Counting resumes from any FA particle:

 fe ti dunda fa mi do - "I donate this to you"
 ──┬──       ──┬── ─┐
  x2          x1   x3


Cmavo and Brivla

Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary:

 "cmavo" - mi, ti, do, lo, ku
    - small word that performs a grammatical function
    - categorized into families
 "brivla" : dunda, klama, mlatu, ladru
    - a word that produces a grammatical verb
    - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles


Selbri Sumti and Bridi

It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in lojban sentences:

 "selbri" - the verb phrases central to sentences and nouns
 "sumti" - the noun phrases that take on semantic roles
 "bridi" - the combination of a selbri and its sumti
LEGEND:
   <> - selbri verb
   [] - sumti noun
   {} - bridi statement

Notice how selbri verb phrases appear throughout:

 lo <se <jdice>> ku <nandu> lo <sonci> ku

Sumti nouns are placed around the root selbri:

 [lo se jdice ku] nandu [lo sonci ku]

And the whole structure, a selbri with its sumti, is a bridi:

 {lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku}


Tanru

By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a "tanru" or compound-selbri verb can be created:

 mi <<djica> <citka>> lo <plise> ku
 "I want-eat an apple."

Two brivla "cidja" and "dunda" come together below to create a compound-selbri inside a sumti:

       Simple Selbri
        ┌───┴───┐
 lo <<cidja> <dunda>> ku <prami> lo <prenu> ku
    └───────┬───────┘
       Selbri Tanru
 "The food-donor loves people."

But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or "tanru"?

Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However, basic structure of the definition is that of the *right most* selbri component:

 gleki : x1 is happy about x2
 cadzu : x1 walks on surface x2
 gleki cadzu : x1 happy-walks on surface x2
 What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure!


CONVERSATION

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are created by using "la" instead of "lo":

 mi prami lo rozgu ku
          ──       ──
 "I love roses."
 mi prami la rozgu ku
          ──       ──
 "I love Rose."
 Names are sumti just like any other.


Introductions

Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo "mi'e":

 Pattern: mi'e NAME
 mi'e la rozgu ku
 ────
 "I'm Rose."


Greetings

Greeting another person is done with the cmavo "coi":

 Pattern: coi SUMTI
 coi la rozgu ku
 ───
 "Hello, Rose."
 coi lo tadni ku
 ───
 "Hello, student"
 coi do
 ───
 "Hello, you."
 Or just, "coi"


Farewells

Farewells are offered with the cmavo "co'o":

 Pattern: co'o SUMTI
 co'o la rozgu ku
 ────
 "Goodbye, Rose."


Requesting Attention

Requests for attention are made with the cmavo "doi":

 Pattern: doi SUMTI
 doi la rozgu ku
 ───
 "Hey, Rose."


Yes No Questions

"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the "xu" cmavo:

 i xu do citka lo plise ku
   ──
 "Did you eat an apple?"

Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a statement the overall structure hasn't changed.

The "xu" is placed after the sentence separator "i" so as to apply to the whole sentence equally. By placing "xu" after a specific word emphasis can be placed on it:

 i do citka lo xu plise ku
               ──
 "Was it an apple you ate?""


Yes No Answers

"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies:

 In the affirmative, "go'i" is used:
   Q: xu do citka lo plise ku
   A: go'i
      ───
 The denial is supplied by: na go'i


Sumti Questions

Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the "ma" cmavo in place of the sumti in question.

 do citka ma
          ──
 "What did you eat?"
 ma catra ma
 ──       ──
 "Who killed who?"


Selbri Questions

Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the "mo" cmavo in place of the selbri in question.

 mo fa mi do ti
 ──
 "What are we doing with this?"
 do mo
    ──
 "You are/doing what?"
 do mo fengu mi
    ──
 "What kind of angry are you at me?"


Attitude Questions

A special kind of question using the cmavo "pei" asks the listener to share their feelings or disposition about some topic:

 i pei mi cliva
   ───
 "How do you feel about me leaving?"

"pei" is another word which can direct its emphasis by way of right-attachment:

 i mi jukpa lo jipci ku pei
                        ───
 "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook.


Attitude Cmavo

In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer to "pei" can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals".

 ui - "I'm happy"
 a'o - "I hope"
 i'e - "I approve"

There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another some aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the attitudinal is appears in.

 i ui do prami mi
   ──
 "You love me, and I'm happy about it."
 i a'o do snada
   ───
 "I'm hopeful you succeed."

Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of speech they attach to:

 do pinxe lo birje ku e'u
                      ───
 "I suggest beer to be what you drink."


Attitude Ranges

Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can be altered from the default.

Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, "nai" and other cmavo can affect the sense of the UI cmavo:

 ui cai     - "I'm happy as possible"
 ui sai     - "I'm very happy"
 ui         - "I'm happy"
 ui ru'e    - "I'm kinda/sorta happy"
 ui cu'i    - "I'm neutral in my happiness"
 ui nai     - "I'm unhappy"
 ui nai sai - "I'm very unhappy"

and so on...


Evidential Cmavo

A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an epistemological claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or state whatever it is they are saying:

 i ti'e do nelci mi
   ────
 "I hear rumored that you like me."
 i pe'i lo plise ku xamgu
   ────
 "It is my opinion that apples are beneficial."
 i za'a do mutce xagji
   ────
 "I observe that you are very hungry."
 i ba'a la rozgu ku zvati lo zdani ku
   ────
 "I expect Rose is at the house."


Discursive Cmavo

Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express the point or purpose of a part of or a whole statement.

 i do citka lo titla ku po'o
                        ────
 "You only eat sweets."
 i ji'a mi nitcu lo jdini ku
   ────
 "Also, I need money."
 i si'a mi terpa lo jukni ku
   ────
 "Similarly, I'm afraid of spiders."
 i ku'i lo jenmi ku daspo
   ────
 "However, armys are destructive."


Humor

Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation:

Sarcasm:

 i xo'o lo se platu ku banli
   ────
 "Oh jeeze, great plan."
 i xo'o nai lo skaci ku melbi
   ────────
 "Seriously, that skirt is beautiful."


Levity:

 i zo'o se ckaji do
   ────
 "Ho! Typical you."
 i zo'o nai mi nelci lo cutci
        ────
 "I do like these shoes..."


Amusement:

 i u'i xu do mulno
   ───
 "Haha, are you done yet?"
 i u'i nai xu do mulno
   ───────
 "Yea.. are you done yet?"


Changing the Subject

If things get tense you can always change the subject with "ta'o":

 i ta'o do klama ma
   ────
 "By the way, where are you going?"

You can also return to a previous topic by adding "nai":

 i ta'o nai mi'o casnu ma
   ────────
 "Returning, what were we discussing?"


Requests and Commands

Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your interlocutor to leave:

 i e'o do cliva
   ───
 "Please, you leave."

Or if they have been particularly offensive you might demand it!

 i ko cliva
   ──
 "I implore you to leave."
 Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do".


SUMTI MANIPULATION

Saying "and" and "or"

To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective cmavo "je" can be used:

 Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI'
 i mi nelci [[lo plise ku] je [lo perli ku]]
                           ──
 "I like apples and pears."

Similarly, "ja" can be used for "or":

 i ko cuxna [[lo dakfu ku] ja [lo mruli ku]]
                           ──
 "Pick the knife or the spear"


Grouping

To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together, "jo'u" can be used:

 Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI'
 i [[mi] jo'u [do]] bevri lo pipno
         ────
 "You and I carry the piano"
 i mi se catra [[lo fagri ku] jo'u [lo bisli ku]]
                              ────
 "I was killed by fire and ice."


Ownership

To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo "po" is used:

 Pattern: SUMTI po SUMTI => SUMTI'
 i [[lo karce ku] po [mi]] spofu
                  ──
 "My car is broken."
 i ko cpacu [[lo ckiku ku] po [do]]
                           ──
 "Go get your keys."

Association

For a weaker association than ownership you can use "pe":

 Pattern: SUMTI pe SUMTI => SUMTI'
 i mi vasxu [[lo vacri ku] pe [do]]
                           ──
 "I'm breathing your air."
 i ko zutse [[lo stizu ku] pe [mi]]
                           ──
 "Sit in my chair."


Pluralities

To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before the sumti:

 Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI'
 Numbers:
  no  pa  re  ci  vo  mu  xa  ze  bi  so
   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9
 i mi viska [mu [lo bakni ku]]
             ──
 "I see 5 cows."
 i mi se raktu [so so [lo nabmi ku]]
                ─────
 "I am troubled by 99 problems."


Subjective Numbers

Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy:

 i xu do citka [du'e [lo plise ku]]
                ────
 "Did you eat too many apples?"
 so'u lo plise ku    - "a few apples"
 so'o lo plise ku    - "several apples"
 so'i lo plise ku    - "many apples"
 so'e lo plise ku    - "most of the apples"
   ro lo plise ku    - "all the apples"
  rau lo plise ku    - "enough apples"
 mo'a lo plise ku    - "not enough apples"
 da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples"


SELBRI MANIPULATION

Negation and Affirmation

Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example negation is done with "na":

 Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI'
 i mi <na <xagji>>
       ──
 "I'm not hungry"
 On the flip-side you can say something is certain:
 i mi <ja'a <xagji>>
       ────
 "I am definitely hungry"


Scaling Relevance

Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri is applied:

 i mi <no'e <xagji>>
       ────
 "I'm not really that hungry."
 i mi <to'e <xagji>>
       ────
 "I'm full!"
 i mi <na'i <xagji>>
       ────
 "It is not even a question of my hunger."


Saying "and" and "or"

Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective words:

 i mi <<tatpi> je <xagji>>
               ──
 "I'm tired and hungry"
 i mi'o e'u <<citka> ja <cliva>>.
                     ──
 "We should eat or leave."


Tense

While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified to have such tense:

 mi <pu <viska>> do
     ──
 "I saw you."
 mi <ca <viska>> do
     ──
 "I see you."
 mi <ba <viska>> do
     ──
 "I will see you."

Temporal Distance

In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided:

 mi <pu zi <viska>> do
        ──
 "I just saw you!"
 mi <pu za <viska>> do
        ──
 "I saw you a while ago."
 mi <pu zu <viska>> do
        ──
 "It has been a long while since I've seen you."


Proximity

Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity:

 mi <vi <viska>> do
     ──
 "I saw you right here!"
 mi <va <viska>> do
     ──
 "I saw you nearby."
 mi <vu <viska>> do
     ──
 "I saw you elsewhere."


Preloading

Selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti, removing a sumti place from the definition, with the "be" cmavo:

 Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'
 dunda : x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3
 dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2

By default "be" injects a sumti into the x2 place, but the FA family can be used to specify which place should be filled:

 vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state

Multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by "bei"

 vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state


Preloaded Sumti

Note that "be" forms a new selbri even though it incorporates a sumti:

 ┌──────new selbri──────────┐
 <<vecnu>  be  [lo xarci ku]> = x1 sells weapons to x2
     │               │
 base selbri   injected sumti

This is a little strange when used as the main verb of a sentence:

    (who)         (sells guns)       (the state)
     ma     <vecnu be lo xarci ku>   lo jecta ku
   [seller]             │              [buyer]
      └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘

[lo xarci ku] could just have been provided as x2 to a normal <vecnu>. The "be" appears unnessecary. However, this is very useful for creating interesting sumti!

              ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐
 mi tavla [lo <<vecnu> be [lo xarci ku]> ku]
 "I talk to the seller of weapons.
 ko na lebna [lo <<sidbo> be fi [mi]> ku]
 "Don't you take ideas of mine."

This is far more explicit than using "pe" or "po".

SUBORDINATION

Facts

Similar to the transformation of selbri into sumti the same can be done for whole bridi into selbri with the help of "du'u" and "kei":

 Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI

The definition of such a selbri is something like:

 x1 is the fact represented by the inner bridi
 ┌───fact selbri────┐
 du'u do prami mi kei =  x1 is the fact that: you love me
      └────┬────┘
      inner bridi

Adding "lo" and "ku", the selbri is transformed into a sumti allowing one to talk about the fact inside:

 [lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me"

These nested fact sumti can be used as any other:

              ┌───fact selbri────┐
 mi djuno [lo du'u do prami mi kei ku]
                   └────┬────┘
                  inner bridi
 "I know that you love me."


Events

Where "du'u" gets at the truth of a matter, "nu" can emphasize the time and location in which a bridi takes place:

 Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI

The definition of such a selbri is something like:

 x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi
 ┌──fact selbri───┐
 nu do speni mi kei =  x1 is the event of: you are married to me
    └────┬────┘
    inner bridi

Just like with "du'u" these "nu" selbri can be turned into sumti with "lo" and "ku":

 [lo <nu {do speni mi} kei> ku] = "the event of our marriage"

And can be incorporated into larger sentences:

              ┌──fact selbri───┐
 mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku]
                 └────┬────┘
                 inner bridi
 "I desire our marriage."


Properties

A third word, "ka" can also create a selbri from a bridi much like "du'u" and "nu":

 Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI

The bridi must contain at least one "ce'u" sumti:

              ┌───────property selbri────────┐
 mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]
                └──────────┬───────────┘
                      inner bridi

The ce'u has no meaning of its own. The selbri that receives the property specifies what it refers to. In this case, it is "cnici" taking the property as its x2.

The definition of cnici is:

 x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property x2

And so it is the x1, or mi, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.

 mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]
  └───────┬────────┘
     bound sumti
 "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."

The ce'u can appear anywhere in the inner bridi:

 do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]
  └──────────────┬─────────────────┘
            bound sumti
 "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."

Some selbri words make comparative statements:

 zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3
 do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]
                   └────────────┬────────────┘
                           inner bridi
 do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku
 "You are more than me in the eating of cookies."
 "You eat more cookies than me."

Numerous property relations exist within the Lojban lexicon.

Relative Phrases

Additional information about a sumti can be provided by attaching a bridi to it with "noi":

 Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'

Similarly to the properties created with ka, noi-bridi have a stand-in word "ke'a":

 ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o
                     └────────┬────────┘
                         inner bridi
 Meet Rose, who I love.

The noi-bridi is attached to "la rozgu ku" and so it is her to whom ke'a refers to.

If the information is not merely incidental but nessecary to discern which thing is being talking about "poi" can be used instead:

 ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o
                         └──────┬──────┘
                           inner bridi
 Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.)


Understanding Time

The basic tenses "pu", "ca" and "ba" were covered previously but it is easy to become confused.

Basic Tenses

The tense for stating something is currently happening is "ca":

 mi ca citka
    ──
 "I am currently eating."

Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is:

 "The present coincides with my eating."
              citka
    ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝
    Past       Now       Future

How about the other tenses?

 mi pu pensi
    ──
 "I was thinking."
 "The past coincides with my thinking."
   pensi
    ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝
    Past       Now       Future
 do ba jimpe
    ──
 "You will understand."
 "The future coincides with your understanding."
                         jimpe
    ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝
    Past       Now       Future


Event Contours

All events have a "temporal extent" or lifetime. It is often useful to describe the various events "within" an event. The ZAhO family of tenses can be used for accessing them:

                                                      ╎ pu'o:  before
pu'o      ═══════════╣  ╠════════════       ba'o      ╎ co'a:  the outset
        co'a      de'a  di'a       co'u               ╎ de'a:  break
                                                      ╎ di'a:  resumption
          └───────────┬─────────────┘                 ╎ co'u:  finish
                    co'i                              ╎ ba'o:  after
                                                      ╎ co'i:  for the duration

Like basic tenses, they modify a selbri to create a new one:

 Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI
 mi <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku
     ────
 "I'm starting to eat an apple."
 mi panca lo nu <co'u <carvi>> kei ku
                 ────
 "I wish for it to finish raining."
 ko <de'a <tadni>>
     ────
 "Take a break from studying."
 mi <pu'o <sipna>>
     ────
 "Its before my bedtime."
 mi <ba'o <prami>> do
     ────
 "My loving you has passed.""


Tensed Contours

If no basic tense is provided, "ca" or present-tense is assumed:

 mi <ca <co'a <citka>> lo plise ku
     ──  ────
 "I'm starting to eat an apple"
 "The present coincides with the start of my apple eating."
                citka
                ╠═══╣
                ┊
    ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝
    Past       Now       Future

But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses?

 mi <pu <pu'o <sipna>>>
     ──  ────
 "It was before my bedtime."
 "The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime."
       sipna
     ┊ ╠═══╣
     ┊
    ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝
    Past       Now       Future
 mi <ba <ba'o <prami>>> do
     ──  ────
 "My loving you will have passed."
 "The future coincides with the aftermath of our love."
                    sipna
                    ╠═══╣  ┊
                           ┊
    ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝
    Past       Now       Future